Degree Course: Biological Sciences Syllabus for A.Y. 2021/2022  

Functions and number sets
Introduction: operations among sets. Function; domain, co-domain, image and graph of functions. Injective, surjective, inverse function and composition. Increasing and decreasing, odd and even functions, Number sets N, Z, Q, R.

Elementary functions
Review on lines, parabolas, exponential, logarithmic and trigoniometric functions. Absolute value. Neighborhood of a real number.

Sequences
Limit of sequences. Uniqueness of the limit. Extended algebra of limits. Monotone sequences. Nepero's number. Sign permanence theorem. Comparison theorem. Squeeze theorem (Theorem of the two Cabinieri). Special limits. Hierarchy of functions.

Limit and continuity
Finite and infinite limit; sign permanence theorem. Right-side and left-side limit. Existence and uniqueness of the limit. Comparison theorem. Algebra of limits and indeterminate forms. Infinite and infinitesimal. Vertical, horizontal and oblique asymptote. Continuous functions. Weierstrass theorem. Intermediate value theorem. Intermediate zero theorem.

Derivatives
Definition of derivative and its geometric interpretation. Calculation of derivatives. Differentiability and continuity. Point of non differentiability. Higher derivatives. Rolle's and Lagrange's theorem. De L’Hôpital's theorems. Taylor's theorem and McLaurin's expansion. Fermat's theorem. Maximum and minimum points. Convexity and concavity. Inflection point. Study of a function.

Integral
Definition of indefinite integral and its properties. Straightforward anti-derivatives. Integration by parts. Integration by substitution. Definite integral and its properties. The fundamental theorem of calculus. generalized integral. Area. Volume of solids of revolution. Measure of the ball and of the sphere. Generalized integrals. Comparison and absolute convergence theorem. Integrability of negative powers at 0 and at infinity.

Differential Equations
Differential Equations: an introduction. Differential Equations of first and second order and Cauchy problems. Separate variables differential equations. Malthus model; bacterial growth; epidemic diffusion; radioactive decay. Logistic growth. Time of the crime.

"Elementi di Calcolo. Versione semplificata per i nuovi corsi di laurea"

di Paolo Marcellini e Carlo Sbordone

Liguori Editore.

Functions and number sets
Introduction: operations among sets. Function; domain, co-domain, image and graph of functions. Injective, surjective, inverse function and composition. Increasing and decreasing, odd and even functions, Number sets N, Z, Q, R.

Elementary functions
Review on lines, parabolas, exponential, logarithmic and trigoniometric functions. Absolute value. Neighborhood of a real number.

Sequences
Limit of sequences. Uniqueness of the limit. Extended algebra of limits. Monotone sequences. Nepero's number. Sign permanence theorem. Comparison theorem. Squeeze theorem (Theorem of the two Cabinieri). Special limits. Hierarchy of functions.

Limit and continuity
Finite and infinite limit; sign permanence theorem. Right-side and left-side limit. Existence and uniqueness of the limit. Comparison theorem. Algebra of limits and indeterminate forms. Infinite and infinitesimal. Vertical, horizontal and oblique asymptote. Continuous functions. Weierstrass theorem. Intermediate value theorem. Intermediate zero theorem.

Derivatives
Definition of derivative and its geometric interpretation. Calculation of derivatives. Differentiability and continuity. Point of non differentiability. Higher derivatives. Rolle's and Lagrange's theorem. De L’Hôpital's theorems. Taylor's theorem and McLaurin's expansion. Fermat's theorem. Maximum and minimum points. Convexity and concavity. Inflection point. Study of a function.

Integral
Definition of indefinite integral and its properties. Straightforward anti-derivatives. Integration by parts. Integration by substitution. Definite integral and its properties. The fundamental theorem of calculus. generalized integral. Area. Volume of solids of revolution. Measure of the ball and of the sphere. Generalized integrals. Comparison and absolute convergence theorem. Integrability of negative powers at 0 and at infinity.

Differential Equations
Differential Equations: an introduction. Differential Equations of first and second order and Cauchy problems. Separate variables differential equations. Malthus model; bacterial growth; epidemic diffusion; radioactive decay. Logistic growth. Time of the crime.

"Elementi di Calcolo. Versione semplificata per i nuovi corsi di laurea"

by Paolo Marcellini and Carlo Sbordone

Liguori Editore.

Part I

The concept of a living organism. Cellular theory. Procariots and Eucaryotes. Unicellular and multicellular organisms. Organizational levels of pluricellular organisms: differentiated cells, tissues, organs. Orders of magnitude of the dimensions of different organisms and of different levels of organization. Chemical composition of living. Water: Its features of biological interest. Suspensions and solutions. Ions. The pH of the solutions. The hydrogen bond. The carbon atom and the chemistry of life. The concept of "symmetry" in carbon compounds of biological interest. The hyaluronic macromolecules: the main biological glucids (exotic and pentose). Steric and optic isomers. Their polymers. The main lipids of biological interest (phospholipids, fatty acids, steroids, hydrophobia and hydrophobia.) Water-soluble and liposoluble compounds Proteins such as amino acid polymers Primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary protein structures Glycosylated proteins and lipoproteins The "form" Protein molecules in relation to their function Enzymes as biological catalysts Nucleic acids DNA structure RNA structure and biosynthesis Riboenzymes Ribosomes Structure, synthesis and function Generalities on protein synthesis The cell as a unit Fundamental features of living organisms Common characteristics and differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes, between plant and animal cells Cell-study methods: different types of microscopes, colorings, immunohistochemistry, etc.
Cell membranes: chemical composition and characteristics. The fluid mosaic model. Intrinsic and extrinsic proteins. Glycosylate and glycolipid proteins and membrane lipoproteins. Plasma membrane and "recognition" between cells. The glycohol. Permeability and active transport. Ionic channels and ionic pumps. Energy metabolism: from photosynthesis to breathing. Transducers of electrons and protons. Triphosphate nucleotides. Ionic channels Na, K, Ca. Endocytosis and exocytosis processes. Membrane potential. Endocytosis mediated by receptors. Cucumbers. The smooth and wrinkled endoplasmic reticulum. The central vacuum of plant cells. The Golgi apparatus. Lysosomes and endocellular digestion. Pinocytosis and phagocytosis. The Perissisomi. Membrane bound membranes characterized by the presence of internal membranes: mitochondria and plastids of plant cells. Probable origin of mitochondria and plastids. Characteristics of the membranes of these organelles. Relationship between structural organization and energy metabolism function of mitochondrial membranes and chloroplasts (notes). Notes on the presence of ion channels acting on ATP-synthetase.
Generalities on the four fundamental tissues and their embryonic branching. Pluricellularity and differentiation. Epithelial tissue. General characteristics. Excitable Fabrics: 1) glandular epithelial tissue; Muscle tissue; 3) Nervous tissue. Glandular epithelium. Endocrine and Exocrine Glands: Characteristics and Embryonic Differentiation. Classification criteria. Cytoplasmic specifics of glandular cells related to their specific functions. The secular role of sinaptotagmans. Skeletal and cardiac striated muscular tissue, contractions. Neuron and cellular organization, exocytosis of neurotransmitters.
Part II

The Epithelium. Classification and functions. Free surface specialization. The lashes and microvilli. Relationships between cells and junction structures: zonula occludens, adherent zonula and desmosomi. Basal surface of the epithelium: relationship with connective tissue and basal lamina. Renewal of coating epitels: the germinating layer. Connective tissue. The different connective tissues: general characteristics and specific characteristics of the different connective tissues. The connector properly said. Classification of connectors. Reticular and elastic collagen fibers: morphofunctional characteristics. The connective cells and their function. The connective and the processes of defense of the organism. The Scythian reticulum system. Special connective tissues. The adipose tissue. The blood. Functions. Plasma: composition and functions. White and erythrocyte cells: Morphological and functional characteristics. Migration of white blood cell and connective cells. Cellular differentiation and specific functions in the connective. Plates: origin and function. Hematopoietic tissues. Hematopoietic lymphoid and myeloid. Embryo and fetal hematopoiesis. Blood and lymph vessels: general characteristics. Arteries, veins and capillaries. Support Connectors. The cartilage tissue. The matrix and the chondrocytes. Histogenesis and degenerative cartilage phenomena. Bone tissue. Calcium support and reserve function. Spongy bone and compact bone. Microscopic bone structure: the osteone. Osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts: dynamic stability of bone tissue. Bone histogenesis: intramembranous ossification. The cytoskeleton and the "shape" of cells in animal and plant organisms. Microtubules, microfilaments and intermediate filaments. The rigid wall of plant cells. The cellular movement. Control and regulation of endocellular movements. Ameboid movement. Eyelashes and scourges. Intercellular junctions. Mechanical joints (desmosomes); Sealing joints; Communicating junctions and electronic coupling. Plasmodymas of plant cells. Functional analogues between communicative junctions of animal cells and plasmodies of plant cells. The endocellular membranes in eukaryotic cells. Biogenesis of membranes.
The nucleus of eukaryotes and its equivalent in procariates. Structure of the interfacial core. Eucromine and Heterocromatine. Structural and optional heterochromatin. The nucleolo. Nuclear enclosure and nuclear pores. Core-Plasma Communication. Chemical composition of chromatin and its organization. Histones and nucleosomes. The cell cycle. The interfase (phases G1, S, G2). DNA and its genetic function. DNA with unique, average and highly repetitive sequence. Genetic code and protein synthesis. DNA in mitochondria and plastids. Biosynthesis and function of messenger, ribosomal and transfer RNAs. Selective activation of genes and differentiation. Interface arrays with peculiar characteristics: polythene chromosomes. The cell cycle: cell division. Stateless cells, diploids and polyploids. The mitosis (equation division) in animal and plant cells. Cell division in prokaryotes. The bacterial "chromosome". Eucariotic chromosomes. Structure of chromosomes. Pattern of the overwhelming ansect chromosome. Meiosis or Reduction Division. Phases and subchapters of meiosis, the meaning of meiosis. Somatic cells and germ cells. Apollo phase and diploid phase. Zygotic, intermediate and terminal meiosis. Special features of gametes. Gametogenesis in upper vertebrates. Gonadal differentiation and protogon migration (only notes). Meiosis: description of the process and its genetic meaning. Nuclear maturation and cytoplasmic maturation. Specificity of egg cell differentiation: synthesis and accumulation of substances of particular importance in the early stages of embryonic development: RNA long-life messengers, specific proteins with informational role (hints).
A practical laboratory experience will be scheduled for 1 hrs: 1) the use of optical microscope; 2) examination of some istological sections.

Main text: CITOLOGIA ed ISTOLOGIA
Dini, Romano et al, Idelson-Gnocchi (2021)


to read (easily to find in the English language)
-C. Lewin "Cells", Zanichelli
Wheather, Histology and Microscopic Anatomy (text + atlas)



Additional didactic study and in-depth materials are available on classroom/google drive available from the Unitus Moodle platform
 

Part I
The concept of a living organism. Cellular theory. Procariots and Eucaryotes. Unicellular and multicellular organisms. Organizational levels of pluricellular organisms: differentiated cells, tissues, organs. Orders of magnitude of the dimensions of different organisms and of different levels of organization. Chemical composition of living. Water: Its features of biological interest. Suspensions and solutions. Ions. The pH of the solutions. The hydrogen bond. The carbon atom and the chemistry of life. The concept of "symmetry" in carbon compounds of biological interest. The hyaluronic macromolecules: the main biological glucids (exotic and pentose). Steric and optic isomers. Their polymers. The main lipids of biological interest (phospholipids, fatty acids, steroids, hydrophobia and hydrophobia.) Water-soluble and liposoluble compounds Proteins such as amino acid polymers Primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary protein structures Glycosylated proteins and lipoproteins The "form" Protein molecules in relation to their function Enzymes as biological catalysts Nucleic acids DNA structure RNA structure and biosynthesis Riboenzymes Ribosomes Structure, synthesis and function Generalities on protein synthesis The cell as a unit Fundamental features of living organisms Common characteristics and differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes, between plant and animal cells Cell-study methods: different types of microscopes, colorings, immunohistochemistry, etc.
Cell membranes: chemical composition and characteristics. The fluid mosaic model. Intrinsic and extrinsic proteins. Glycosylate and glycolipid proteins and membrane lipoproteins. Plasma membrane and "recognition" between cells. The glycohol. Permeability and active transport. Ionic channels and ionic pumps. Energy metabolism: from photosynthesis to breathing. Transducers of electrons and protons. Triphosphate nucleotides. Ionic channels Na, K, Ca. Endocytosis and exocytosis processes. Membrane potential. Endocytosis mediated by receptors. Cucumbers. The smooth and wrinkled endoplasmic reticulum. The central vacuum of plant cells. The Golgi apparatus. Lysosomes and endocellular digestion. Pinocytosis and phagocytosis. The Perissisomi. Membrane bound membranes characterized by the presence of internal membranes: mitochondria and plastids of plant cells. Probable origin of mitochondria and plastids. Characteristics of the membranes of these organelles. Relationship between structural organization and energy metabolism function of mitochondrial membranes and chloroplasts (notes). Notes on the presence of ion channels acting on ATP-synthetase.
Generalities on the four fundamental tissues and their embryonic branching. Pluricellularity and differentiation. Epithelial tissue. General characteristics. Excitable Fabrics: 1) glandular epithelial tissue; Muscle tissue; 3) Nervous tissue. Glandular epithelium. Endocrine and Exocrine Glands: Characteristics and Embryonic Differentiation. Classification criteria. Cytoplasmic specifics of glandular cells related to their specific functions. The secular role of sinaptotagmans. Skeletal and cardiac striated muscular tissue, contractions. Neuron and cellular organization, exocytosis of neurotransmitters.
Part II
The Epithelium. Classification and functions. The lashes and microvilli. Relationships between cells and junction structures: zonula occludens, adherent zonula and desmosomi. Basal surface of the epithelium: relationship with connective tissue and basal lamina. Renewal of coating epitels: the germinating layer. Connective tissue. The different connective tissues: general characteristics and specific characteristics of the different connective tissues. The connector properly said. Classification of connectors. Reticular and elastic collagen fibers: morphofunctional characteristics. The connective cells and their function. The connective and the processes of defense of the organism. The Scythian reticulum system. Special connective tissues. The adipose tissue. The blood. Functions. Plasma: composition and functions. White and erythrocyte cells: Morphological and functional characteristics. Migration of white blood cell and connective cells. Cellular differentiation and specific functions in the connective. Plates: origin and function. Hematopoietic tissues. Hematopoietic lymphoid and myeloid. Blood and lymph vessels: general characteristics. Support Connectors. The cartilage tissue. The matrix and the chondrocytes. Histogenesis and degenerative cartilage phenomena. Bone tissue. Calcium support and reserve function. Spongy bone and compact bone. Microscopic bone structure: the osteone. Osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts: dynamic stability of bone tissue. Bone histogenesis: intramembranous ossification. The cytoskeleton and the "shape" of cells in animal and plant organisms. Microtubules, microfilaments and intermediate filaments. The rigid wall of plant cells. The cellular movement. Control and regulation of endocellular movements. Ameboid movement. Eyelashes and scourges. Intercellular junctions. Mechanical joints (desmosomes); Sealing joints; Communicating junctions and electronic coupling. Plasmodymas of plant cells. Functional analogues between communicative junctions of animal cells and plasmodies of plant cells. The endocellular membranes in eukaryotic cells. Biogenesis of membranes.
The nucleus of eukaryotes and its equivalent in procariates. Structure of the interfacial core. Eucromine and Heterocromatine. Structural and optional heterochromatin. The nucleolo. Nuclear enclosure and nuclear pores. Core-Plasma Communication. Chemical composition of chromatin and its organization. Histones and nucleosomes. The cell cycle. The interfase (phases G1, S, G2). DNA and its genetic function. DNA with unique, average and highly repetitive sequence. Genetic code and protein synthesis. DNA in mitochondria and plastids. Biosynthesis and function of messenger, ribosomal and transfer RNAs. Selective activation of genes and differentiation. Interface arrays with peculiar characteristics: polythene chromosomes. The cell cycle: cell division. Stateless cells, diploids and polyploids. The mitosis (equation division) in animal and plant cells. Cell division in prokaryotes. The bacterial "chromosome". Eucariotic chromosomes. Structure of chromosomes. Pattern of the overwhelming ansect chromosome. Meiosis or Reduction Division. Somatic cells and germ cells. Apollo phase and diploid phase. Zygotic, intermediate and terminal meiosis. Special features of gametes. Gametogenesis in upper vertebrates. Gonadal differentiation and protogon migration (only notes). Meiosis: description of the process and its genetic meaning. Nuclear maturation and cytoplasmic maturation. Specificity of egg cell differentiation: synthesis and accumulation of substances of particular importance in the early stages of embryonic development: RNA long-life messengers, specific proteins with informational role.
A practical laboratory experience will be scheduled for 1 hrs: 1) the use of optical microscope; 2) examination of some istological sections.

Cytology:
Dini Romano et al.; Citologia e Istologia, Idelson-Gnocchi
Alberts et al., Biologia molecolare della Cellula, Zanichelli
oppure
Alberts et al. L'essenziale di Biologia Cellulare e molecolare Zanichelli
Histology:
Bergem et al; Istologia Edises.
Molinaro et al. Istologia di V. Monesi, Piccin.
Rosati P. et al; Istologia, Edi-Ermes
Wheather, Istologia ed Antatomia microscopica

1. Introduction
States of aggregation of matter. Homogeneous and heterogeneous systems. Chemical elements and substances. Main techniques of separation. Chemical and physical transformations. Energy and chemical transformations. Intensive and extensive properties of matter. Fundamental laws of physics.
The atom: protons, neutrons and electrons. Atomic number and mass number: isotopes. Atomic masses and relative atomic masses. Chemical symbols and their quantitative meaning. Molecular compounds and ionic compounds. Relative molecular mass. Avogadro number. The mole concept.

2. Chemical formulas and equations
Chemical equations and balance. Kind of reactions: combinations, decomposition and combustion. Chemical analysis by combustion. Balanced equations and quantitative information. The concept of limitant reagent. Chemical reaction in solution: acid-base and precipitation. Balancing redox equations. Concentration of solutions and corresponding units.

3. Atomic structure
Electromagnetic radiation. Bohr model of the hydrogen atom. Atomic spectra. De Broglie and the wave nature of matter. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. Schrodinger equation. Wave-particle duality. Atomic orbitals. Quantum numbers. Pauli exclusion principle. Electronic configuration of the elements. Principle of Aufbau. The periodic system of the elements. Periodic properties: Dimensions of atoms and ions, ionization energy, electron affinity. Metals, non-metals and metalloids. Notes on coordination compounds and their biological significance.

4. The chemical bond
Ionic and covalent bonding. Bond properties: order, distance and energy. Electronegativity and Dipolar moment. Lewis's structures. VSEPR model and geometry of molecules. Chemical bond theory: hybrid orbitals and resonance theory in chemistry. Magnetic properties of matter. Intermolecular forces. Hydrogen bond.

5. The gaseous state
Ideal gas state equation. Dalton's Law for gaseous mixtures. Density and relative density of gases and gaseous mixtures. Average molecular mass of a gaseous mixture. Kinetic-molecular theory and velocity distribution. Graham's effusion law. Experimental methods for the determination of the molecular masses of gaseous substances. Real gases, Van der Waals equation.

6. Condensed states
The Liquid state
Intramolecular and intermolecular interactions. Intermolecular interactions of an electrostatic nature. Enthalpy of vaporization and its dependencies. Hydrogen bond. Phase's equilibria. Vapour pressure. Phase transitions and related enthalpies. Clausius-Clapeyron equation. One component phase diagram. Water Phase diagram of water.
The Solid state
Crystalline lattices and elementary cells. Molecular, ionic, covalent and metallic solids. Polymorphism and allotropy. X-ray diffraction. Definition of solids based on symmetry and intermolecular interactions.

7. Chemical thermodynamics
Definition of thermodynamic system. Status functions. Cyclic and open transformations. Reversible and irreversible transformations. Heat, work and internal energy. First principle of thermodynamics. Enthalpy and Hess's law. Entropy. Second principle of thermodynamics. Spontaneous processes. Free energy. Third principle of thermodynamics. Introduction to the concept of chemical equilibrium.

8. Solutions
Solubility and dissolving processes. Gas solutions in liquids. Enthalpy of dissolution and effect of temperature on solubilization processes. Ideal solutions and real solutions. Raoult's law. Ebullioscopic elevation and cryoscopic lowering. Colligative properties of the ideal solutions and determination of the molecular masses of compounds. Osmosis. Not ideal solutions. Fractional distillation. Azeotropic mixtures. Henry's law. Activity and ionic strength.

9. Chemical equilibrium
Spontaneous processes and thermodynamic equilibrium in chemical reactions. Mass action law. Isoterm and isochoric of van't Hoff. Homogeneous equilibria. The principle of Le Chatelier. Effect of the variation in concentration of a reagent or a product on equilibrium. Effect of variation of volume, pressure and temperature on homogeneous equilibria. Heterogeneous equilibria.

10. Equilibria in Solution
Acid-base equilibria: General definitions (Arrhenius, Broensted-Lowry, Lewis). Strength of acids and bases and equilibrium constants. Molecular structure and properties of acid-base. Water autoionization. The pH and the pOH. PH calculation of acidic, basic and saline solutions. Buffer solutions. Solubility and solubility product of salts.

11. Chemical Kinetics
Reaction rate. Kinetic laws and integrated kinetic laws. Order and molecularity of a reaction. Arrhenius equation. Activation energy. Kinetic mechanism of reactions. Collision theory and theory of activated complex. Catalysis.

12. Electrochemical
Galvanic cells. Electrode and electrode reaction. Standard potential. Thermodynamics of galvanic cells. Nerst equation.


Stoichiometry: Mole. Molecular and minimal formulas. Nomenclature of the main inorganic compounds. Chemical equations and ponderal ratios. Limiting reactive. Law of gases and gaseous species in chemical reactions. Indirect analysis. Solutions and volumetric analysis. Gaseous, homogeneous and heterogeneous chemical balances. Thermochemistry and thermodynamics of reactions. Colligative properties of non-electrolytes and electrolytes solutions. PH calculation of acid, base and salts solutions. Buffer solutions. Solubility and solubility product of salts.

Recommended texts;

M. Speranza et al., General and inorganic chemistry, Edi-Ermes Editor (2013).

F. Cacace and M. Schiavello, Stoichiometry, Bulzoni Editor (1995).

NOTE: The teacher will communicate at the beginning of the course the link to the additional teaching material available to the students.

1. Introduction
States of aggregation of matter. Homogeneous and heterogeneous systems. Chemical elements and substances. Main techniques of separation. Chemical and physical transformations. Energy and chemical transformations. Intensive and extensive properties of matter. Fundamental laws of physics.
The atom: protons, neutrons and electrons. Atomic number and mass number: isotopes. Atomic masses and relative atomic masses. Chemical symbols and their quantitative meaning. Molecular compounds and ionic compounds. Relative molecular mass. Avogadro number. The mole concept.

2. Chemical formulas and equations
Chemical equations and balance. Kind of reactions: combinations, decomposition and combustion. Chemical analysis by combustion. Balanced equations and quantitative information. The concept of limitant reagent. Chemical reaction in solution: acid-base and precipitation. Balancing redox equations. Concentration of solutions and corresponding units.

3. Atomic structure
Electromagnetic radiation. Bohr model of the hydrogen atom. Atomic spectra. De Broglie and the wave nature of matter. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. Schrodinger equation. Wave-particle duality. Atomic orbitals. Quantum numbers. Pauli exclusion principle. Electronic configuration of the elements. Principle of Aufbau. The periodic system of the elements. Periodic properties: Dimensions of atoms and ions, ionization energy, electron affinity. Metals, non-metals and metalloids. Notes on coordination compounds and their biological significance.

4. The chemical bond
Ionic and covalent bonding. Bond properties: order, distance and energy. Electronegativity and Dipolar moment. Lewis's structures. VSEPR model and geometry of molecules. Chemical bond theory: hybrid orbitals and resonance theory in chemistry. Magnetic properties of matter. Intermolecular forces. Hydrogen bond.

5. The gaseous state
Ideal gas state equation. Dalton's Law for gaseous mixtures. Density and relative density of gases and gaseous mixtures. Average molecular mass of a gaseous mixture. Kinetic-molecular theory and velocity distribution. Graham's effusion law. Experimental methods for the determination of the molecular masses of gaseous substances. Real gases, Van der Waals equation.

6. Condensed states
The Liquid state
Intramolecular and intermolecular interactions. Intermolecular interactions of an electrostatic nature. Enthalpy of vaporization and its dependencies. Hydrogen bond. Phase's equilibria. Vapour pressure. Phase transitions and related enthalpies. Clausius-Clapeyron equation. One component phase diagram. Water Phase diagram of water.
The Solid state
Crystalline lattices and elementary cells. Molecular, ionic, covalent and metallic solids. Polymorphism and allotropy. X-ray diffraction. Definition of solids based on symmetry and intermolecular interactions.

7. Chemical thermodynamics
Definition of thermodynamic system. Status functions. Cyclic and open transformations. Reversible and irreversible transformations. Heat, work and internal energy. First principle of thermodynamics. Enthalpy and Hess's law. Entropy. Second principle of thermodynamics. Spontaneous processes. Free energy. Third principle of thermodynamics. Introduction to the concept of chemical equilibrium.

8. Solutions
Solubility and dissolving processes. Gas solutions in liquids. Enthalpy of dissolution and effect of temperature on solubilization processes. Ideal solutions and real solutions. Raoult's law. Ebullioscopic elevation and cryoscopic lowering. Colligative properties of the ideal solutions and determination of the molecular masses of compounds. Osmosis. Not ideal solutions. Fractional distillation. Azeotropic mixtures. Henry's law. Activity and ionic strength.

9. Chemical equilibrium
Spontaneous processes and thermodynamic equilibrium in chemical reactions. Mass action law. Isoterm and isochoric of van't Hoff. Homogeneous equilibria. The principle of Le Chatelier. Effect of the variation in concentration of a reagent or a product on equilibrium. Effect of variation of volume, pressure and temperature on homogeneous equilibria. Heterogeneous equilibria.

10. Equilibria in Solution
Acid-base equilibria: General definitions (Arrhenius, Broensted-Lowry, Lewis). Strength of acids and bases and equilibrium constants. Molecular structure and properties of acid-base. Water autoionization. The pH and the pOH. PH calculation of acidic, basic and saline solutions. Buffer solutions. Solubility and solubility product of salts.

11. Chemical Kinetics
Reaction rate. Kinetic laws and integrated kinetic laws. Order and molecularity of a reaction. Arrhenius equation. Activation energy. Kinetic mechanism of reactions. Collision theory and theory of activated complex. Catalysis.

12. Electrochemical
Galvanic cells. Electrode and electrode reaction. Standard potential. Thermodynamics of galvanic cells. Nerst equation.


Stoichiometry: Mole. Molecular and minimal formulas. Nomenclature of the main inorganic compounds. Chemical equations and ponderal ratios. Limiting reactive. Law of gases and gaseous species in chemical reactions. Indirect analysis. Solutions and volumetric analysis. Gaseous, homogeneous and heterogeneous chemical balances. Thermochemistry and thermodynamics of reactions. Colligative properties of non-electrolytes and electrolytes solutions. PH calculation of acid, base and salts solutions. Buffer solutions. Solubility and solubility product of salts

Petrucci et al., "Chimica Generale" Ed. Piccin

J.TRO, "Chimica" Ed. Edises


NOTE: The teacher will communicate at the beginning of the course the link to the additional teaching material available to the students.

Models, theories, laws, measures and uncertainties. Unit of measurement (International System). Physics and its relationship with other disciplines.
Motion description: kinematics in one dimension and kinematics in two dimensions. Vectors and operations between them.
Come on, mass. Newton's laws. Applications of the laws of dynamics (inclined plane, circular motion, friction). Law of gravitation
Job. Kinetic energy. Power. Kinetic energy theorem. Conservative forces. Potential energy. Conservation of mechanical energy.
Momentum. Rotary motion.
Vibrations and waves. harmonic motion. Pendulum. Sound, intensity.
Bodies in balance: elasticity and fracture.
Fluids (static, dynamic, viscosity, surface tension).
Review of: temperature and kinetic theory of gases, heat, principles of thermodynamics, thermal machines, entropy.
Electric charge and electric field. Electric potential and electricity. Electric dipole. Electric capacity. Dielectrics. Electric currents. Direct current circuits. Ohm's law. Magnetism. Electromagnetic induction and Faraday's laws. Magnetic properties of matter.
Electromagnetic waves and their spectrum.
Introduction to modern physics. Black body. Photoelectric effect.
Quantum theory. Models of the atom. Radioactive decay. Measurement of ionizing radiation doses.
The part of geometric optics, physical optics and optical instruments will be carried out in the module held by another teacher (see for details).

Fisica, Giancoli, Ambrosiana (III edizione con fisica moderna)

Light.
Geometric optics: reflection, refraction, and lenses.
Physical optics: interference, diffraction, dispersion, polarization.
Optical instruments (human eye and microscope).

Giancoli “Fisica” edizione con Fisica Moderna - III Edizione- Casa Editrice Ambrosiana

Models, theories, laws, measures and uncertainties. Unit of measurement (International System). Physics and its relationship with other disciplines.
Motion description: kinematics in one dimension and kinematics in two dimensions. Vectors and operations between them.
Come on, mass. Newton's laws. Applications of the laws of dynamics (inclined plane, circular motion, friction). Law of gravitation
Job. Kinetic energy. Power. Kinetic energy theorem. Conservative forces. Potential energy. Conservation of mechanical energy.
Momentum. Rotary motion.
Vibrations and waves. harmonic motion. Pendulum. Sound, intensity.
Bodies in balance: elasticity and fracture.
Fluids (static, dynamic, viscosity, surface tension).
Review of: temperature and kinetic theory of gases, heat, principles of thermodynamics, thermal machines, entropy.
Electric charge and electric field. Electric potential and electricity. Electric dipole. Electric capacity. Dielectrics. Electric currents. Direct current circuits. Ohm's law. Magnetism. Electromagnetic induction and Faraday's laws. Magnetic properties of matter.
Electromagnetic waves and their spectrum.
Introduction to modern physics. Black body. Photoelectric effect.
Quantum theory. Models of the atom. Radioactive decay. Measurement of ionizing radiation doses.
The part of geometric optics, physical optics and optical instruments will be carried out in the module held by another teacher (see for details).

Fisica, Giancoli, Ambrosiana (III edizione con fisica moderna)

Light.
Geometric optics: reflection, refraction, and lenses.
Physical optics: interference, diffraction, dispersion, polarization.
Optical instruments (human eye and microscope).

Giancoli “Fisica” edizione con Fisica Moderna - III Edizione- Casa Editrice Ambrosiana

Autotrophic and heterotrophic organisms. Prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The plant cell. The cell wall. The cytoplasmic membrane. Plastids, chloroplast structure. Vacuole (structure and function).
Plants: structure and function. Vegetable Tissues. Primary and secondary meristematic tissues. Fundamental. Mechanical, Protective, Absorbent, Secretive and Conductive tissues. The root: root functions, primary and secondary structure, lateral and adventitious roots; absorption of water and mineral salts. The stem: stem functions, primary structure in monocotyledons and dicotyledons; Vascular cambium, secondary structure; Cork, phellogen and phelloderm. The leaf: shape, structure and function. Stoma: anatomy and stomatic mechanism.
Photosynthesis. The transportation of raw and processed lymph.
Reproduction: generation alternation: microsporogenesis and microgametogenesis; Macrosporogenesis and macrogametogenesis.
Biological cycles. The flower: morphology. Evolutionary aspects. Reproductive strategies: anemophilous and entomophilous pollination. Fertilization. The fruit: embryo development; endosperm; Fruit development. Seed: structural aspects; Dissemination.

Biodiversity and plant classification. Taxonomy, systematic and evolution. Main morphological, biological, phylogenetic and ecological aspects of: Algae: Euglenoids, Dinoflagellate, Diatoms, Phylum Rhodophyta, Phylum Phaeophyta, Phylum Chlorophyta. Fungi: Chytridiomycota, ex-Zygomycota, Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, Glomeromycota, mitosporic fungi. Lichens and mycorrhizae. Musci and liverworths: Phylum Bryophyta, Phylum Hepatophyta. Vascular plants: Phylum Lycophyta, Phylum Pteridophyta.
Phylum Coniferophyta Families: Cupressaceae, Pinaceae.
Phylum Anthophyta
Class: Dicotyledones
Main characters of the following families: Magnoliaceae, Ranunculaceae, Fagaceae, Rosaceae, Fabaceae, Apiaceae, Brassicaceae, Solanaceae, Boraginaceae, Lamiaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Asteraceae.
Class: Monocotyledones
Main charcaters of the following families: Liliaceae, Orchidaceae, Poaceae

Pasqua G., Abbate G., Forni C., 2019 (o 2015). Botanica generale e diversità vegetale. Piccin Editore
Speranza, Calzoni. Struttura delle piante in immagini. Zanichelli Ed (we strongly recommend to consult the book, of which there are several copies in the library).
Teaching material provided by the teacher.

Autotrophic and heterotrophic organisms. Prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The plant cell. The cell wall. The cytoplasmic membrane. Plastids, chloroplast structure. Vacuole (structure and function).

Plants: structure and function. Vegetable Tissues. Primary and secondary meristematic tissues. Fundamental. Mechanical, Protective, Absorbent, Secretive and Conductive tissues. The root: root functions, primary and secondary structure, lateral and adventitious roots; absorption of water and mineral salts. The stem: stem functions, primary structure in monocotyledons and dicotyledons; Vascular cambium, secondary structure; Cork, phellogen and phelloderm. The leaf: shape, structure and function. Stoma: anatomy and stomatic mechanism.

Traspiration. Photosynthesis. The transportation of raw and processed lymph.

Reproduction: generation alternation: microsporogenesis and microgametogenesis; Macrosporogenesis and macrogametogenesis.
Biological cycles. The flower: morphology. Evolutionary aspects. Reproductive strategies: anemophilous and entomophilous pollination. Fertilization. The fruit: embryo development; endosperm; Fruit development. Seed: structural aspects; Dissemination.

Biodiversity and plant classification. Taxonomy, systematic and evolution. Main morphological, biological, phylogenetic and ecological aspects of: Algae: Euglenoids, Dinoflagellate, Diatoms, Phylum Rhodophyta, Phylum Phaeophyta, Phylum Chlorophyta. Fungi: Chytridiomycota, ex-Zygomycota, Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, Glomeromycota, mitosporic fungi. Lichens and mycorrhizae. Musci and liverworths: Phylum Bryophyta, Phylum Hepatophyta. Vascular plants: Phylum Lycophyta, Phylum Pteridophyta.

Phylum Coniferophyta Families: Cupressaceae, Pinaceae.
Phylum Anthophyta
Class: Dicotyledones
Main characters of the following families: Magnoliaceae, Ranunculaceae, Fagaceae, Rosaceae, Fabaceae, Apiaceae, Brassicaceae, Solanaceae, Boraginaceae, Lamiaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Asteraceae.
Class: Monocotyledones
Main charcaters of the following families: Liliaceae, Orchidaceae, Poaceae.

Pasqua G., Abbate G., Forni C., 2015. Botanica generale e diversità vegetale. Piccin Editore
Speranza, Calzoni. Struttura delle piante in immagini. Zanichelli Ed (we strongly recommend to consult the book, of which there are several copies in the library).
Alternatively::
Venturelli F., Virli L., 2009. Invito alla Botanica. Zanichelli, Bologna.
Ray F. Evert, Eichhorn S.E., 2013. La biologia delle piante di Raven. Zanichelli, Bologna

Additional material in pdf format will be available in the Moodle platform.

The didactic herbarium is available at the Botanical Garden (Telephon call for appointments 0761357028; email ortobot@unitus.it)
https://moodle.unitus.it/moodle/course/view.php?id=231

Modern zoology and its branches, Role of zoological fields in modern Biology.
The species: concepts and definition of biological species; diagnostic characters of biological species. Systematic characters of species, rules of zoological nomenclature. Distribution of animal species and zoo-geographical regions.
Creationism and Darwinism. Genetic variability: origin, distribution, regulation. Introduction to population genetics. Micro-evolution and macro-evolution. Mechanisms of speciation, sympatric and allopatric. Adaptations and mechanisms of reproduction. Homologies and analogies.
General description of adaptive physiology: nutrition, respiration, systems of internal transport, homeostasis and excretion, skeletons and locomotion, nervous and sensorial systems, comparative immunology and internal defences.
Mechanisms of reproduction: agamic reproduction and regeneration. Sexual reproduction. Sex determination. Primary and secondary sexual characters. Sexual dimorphism. Gonocorism, ermaphroditism partenogenesis. Internal and external fecundation, embryonal and post-embryonal development.
Introduction to ethology: stimuli and signals, communications, courtship, parental cares, aggression, innate and acquired behaviour. Social animal species.
Intra- and inter- specific relationships, societies and colonies, competition, territorialism, predation, competition, symbiosis, parasitism. Colour adaptations, cryptic and mimetic features, bioluminescence.
General concepts of evolutionary biology, biodiversity, systematics and phylogenesis. Systematic nomenclatures and cladystics, genotypes and phenotypes, adaptation strategies, reproduction and development of main animal taxa: Protozoa, Porifera, Cnidaria, Platyhelmintha, Nematoda, Annelida, Mollusca, Arthropoda, Echinoderma, Chordata.

The following books are recommended as an alternative to each other:

Hickman et al. Zoologia, McGraw-Hill, diciottesima edizione.
Casiraghi et al. Zoologia, UTET
De Bernardi et al. Zoologia: Parte generale - Parte sistematica, Idealson-Gnocchi
Hickman et al. Fondamenti di Zoologia e Diversità Animale, McGraw-Hill
Miller-Harley. Zoologia: Parte generale - Parte sistematica, Idealson-Gnocchi.
Argano R. et al. Zoologia e Diversità animale, Monduzzi.

The teaching material shown in class will be made available through the moodle platform.

Modern zoology and her branches, Role of zoological fields in moden Biology.
The species: concepts and definition of biologica species; diagnostic characters of biological species. Systematic characters of species, rules of zoological nomenclature. Distribution of animal species and zoo-geographical regions.
Creationism and Darwinism. Genetic variabilità: origin, distribuito, regulation. Introduction to population genetica. Micro-evolution and macro-evolution. Mechanisms of speciation, sympatric and allopatric. Adaptations and mechanisms of reproduction. Homologies and analogies.
Introductory description of adaptive physiology: nutrition, respiration, systems of internal transport, homeostasis and excretion, skeletons and locomotion, nervous and sensorial systems, comparative immunology and internal defences.
Mechanisms of reproduction: agamic reproduction and regeneration. Sexual reproduction. Sex determination. Primary and secondari sexual attributes. Sexual dimorphism. Gonocorism, ermaphroditism partenogenesis. Internal and external fecundation, embryonal and post-embryonal development.
Introduction to ethology: stimuli and signals, communications, courting, parental cares, aggression, innate and acquired behaviour. Social animal species.
Intra- and inter- species relationships, societies and colonies, competition, territorialism, predation, competition, symbiosis, parasitism. Colour adaptations, cryptic and mimetic features, bioluminescence.

General concepts of evolutionary biology, biodiversity, systematics and philogenesis. Systematic nomenclatures and cladystics, genotypes and phenotypes, adaptation strategies, reproduction and development of main animal taxa: Protozoa, Porifera, Cnidaria, Platyhelminthes, Nematodes, Annelida, Molluscs, Arthropods, Echinoderms, Chordata.

1- HICKMAN-CLEVELAND FONDAMENTI DI ZOOLOGIA 15A EDIZ, EDIZIONI MCGRAW-HILL.
2- HICKMAN - ROBERTS - KEEN - EISENHOUR - LARSON – LANSON, DIVERSITÀ ANIMALE, MCGRAW-HILL, from 2012 onward

Title: "Biology- Level B1 DEB" 2021-22

English language
Lecturer: Dr. Elizabeth Hernández Borrayo
Email: elizabeth.hernandez@unitus.it
Reception and Counselling Mode for Students: MONDAY (online Link: )
Hours: (13-14)


The course foresees a basic knowledge of English level A2 (elementary level) and is aimed at strengthening the main linguistic structures of intermediate level B1, so as to put the student in a position to easily understand scientific texts. Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) - Level B1


Language laboratory: 18 HOURS
- https: //www.bsmart.it/
My Bsmart-code Online Class: Access code e0a6c9 (register for the course)

- GOOGLE CLASSROOM G-SUITE - Online Class (register for the course with the University email) code: r64z3f3

GRAMMAR:
- The word order in sentences.
- Parts of speech: definite and indefinite articles, plural and singular nouns (countable and uncountable), adjectives: comparative and superlative, the order/position of adjectives; Prepositions, Pronouns, Adverbs, Verbs: auxiliary, regular, irregular, modal and reflexive.
- Possessive adjectives / pronouns
- Expressions of quantity
- Verb tenses: indicative active (all), imperative, infinitive present: - Indicative passive present & past
- Present Simple, Present Continuous, Past Simple, Past Continuous, Present Perfect Simple, Present Perfect Continuous, Past Perfect Simple, Past Perfect Continuous, Present Simple and Continuous for the future, To be going to, Will / Shall, Simple Present for the future with if / while / when / before/after/until / as soon as, Passive Form (all tenses).
- Modal verbs
- Conditional: type 0, 1, 2 & 3
- Frequency adverbs
- Verbs with infinitive/gerund
- Equivalent grammatical structures (e.g. It is likely that he will go / he will probably go)
- Direct and indirect speech
- Comparative and superlative adverbs
- Habits in the past: "used to" and Would
- Get it done: "have something done"
- Conditionals: Zero, First, Second and Third Conditional, Wish + simple past/past perfect.
- Relatives: Relative Pronouns, Defining vs. Non-Defining Relative Clauses.

VOCABULARY:
- Holidays, travel and transportation
- Learning and education
- Buy and sell; shopping
- Animals, nature and human beings (family)
- Health, exercise, and sport; body parts and medicine
- Houses and lifestyles
- Art, leisure, and entertainment
- Security, household items
- Science and technology
- Relationships, family, personality, and feelings
- The natural world and time
- Food (eat and drink), celebrations and holidays
- TV and mass media, books
- Pastimes and free time
- Clothing and fashion
- The world of work and professions.

COMMUNICATIVE FUNCTIONS:
- Asking / giving information (habits, routines, personal details, personal items, permission, time, date, places, spelling, directions, for travelling) - Expressing opinions / making choices, talking about plans, planning, telling past experiences - Talking about family, studies, free time - Talking about / planning holidays - Being and disagreeing - Describing the state of health, describing feelings / describing people - Drawing simple conclusions and giving advice - Talking about time - Expressing opinions, preferences, abilities and disabilities, needs and desires - Expressing preferences, abilities and disabilities - Expressing needs and desires, obligations and no obligations - Expressing cause and effect and giving reasons - Thanking and responding to thanks, inviting / responding to invitations - Make / decline simple requests - Apologize and respond to apologies, offer and suggest - Make comparisons, make predictions, give orders and commands - Buy and sell (costs, measures and totals) - Change the subject / criticize and complain - Count and use numbers - Greet and respond to greetings, present himself and others - Describe objects and accommodations - Stop the conversation, start a speech and resume it - Make appointments and organize meetings, make compliments - Make and respond to offers and suggestions - Talk about food and order in a restaurant - Talk about physical and emotional feelings - Talk about probability / improbability; possibility / impossibility - Talking and writing about the future and imaginary situations, future plans or intentions, past events and completed actions - Talking and writing about current events - Understanding and completing a form of personal details - Understanding and producing a simple story one letter - Understanding notices, notes, emails, reporting speech

ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONETICS:
- Vowel phonemes (including diphthongs) and consonants - Sound pairs - The phonetic alphabet - Minimal pairs and allophones - The pronunciation of the finals -s; -es; -ed - Word stress - Sentence stress: function words and content words - Phonetic variations in connected speech: elision, linking, assimilation - Elision (linking patterns) - Introduction to intonation / tones - Intonation (and functions) of discursive markers and questions "echo" - Difficult phonetic specificities for Italian students.

CULTURAL CONCEPTS
- Courtesy forms - Idiomatic phrases - Recipes - Schools and universities - Simple governmental structures
It includes the key points of familiar topics related to school, leisure etc. He knows how to move with ease in situations that can occur while travelling in the country of which he speaks the language. Can produce simple text relating to topics that are familiar or of personal interest. He is able to express experiences and events, dreams, hopes and ambitions and to briefly explain the reasons for his opinions and projects.

SPECIFIC MICRO LANGUAGE:
-Understanding and discussion of scientific texts (short oral presentation/summary of their content). Topics and texts will be defined specifically during the course and will focus on the following aspects:
- DNA: discovery, structure and development of related technologies
- Biotechnology: ancient and modern techniques, applications and problematic aspects
- The influence of human activities on ecosystems.

TEXTS A.A. 2021/2022

- Raymond Murphy e Lelio Pallini, "Essential grammar in use: grammatica di base della lingua inglese" quarta edizione con soluzioni ed e-Book, Cambridge University Press, versione italiana con soluzioni. ISBN 978-1316509029.

- Valentina M. Chen, "Ready for B1 Preliminary for Schools". 8 Practice Tests with guidance and tips. ISBN 978-8853627872. (for REVISED EXAM from 2020)

- Dispense e articoli forniti dal docente durante lo svolgimento del corso.

Libro CONSIGLIATO A self-study reference and practice book for intermediate learners of English, Fourth Edition with answers and ebook, Includes ebook with audio:
Raymond Murphy, "Essential Grammar in Use", Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-1107539334.

Grammar: tenses – present simple and present continuous, past simple and past continuous – future (will/going to/present continuous) – 1st and 2nd conditionals – comparatives and superlatives – use of definite and indefinite articles – use of passive – modals - quantifiers
Topics: technology, environment, human resources, sport, nature, generational differences
Vocabulary: as per above topics
Skills:
Listening – understands main ideas when speaking about everyday matters, current affairs and issues of personal and professional interest
Reading – understands texts written in an everyday language or related to work, understands the description of personal emotions and wishes
Writing – able to write simple, well-connected texts on matters they are familiar with or of interest
Speaking – able to connect simple sentences in order to narrate events in the past, present and future, able to explain and motivate personal opinions and tell a story or plot of a film/book, etc..

Murphy: English Grammar in Use, Intermediate, Fifth Edition, Cambridge University Press
National Geographic Learning, Life Pre-Intermediate Student’s Book, Second Edition - material provided by teacher

Module A STRUCTURE
Alkanes and cycloalkanes. Introduction. Structure. Sp3 hybridization. Nomenclature. Physical Properties. Isomerism of structure. Conformational analysis (ethane, cyclohexane). Stability of cycloalkanes (angle strain, torsional strain, tension steric). Derivatives of cyclohexane (stereoisomery cis-trans). Bicyclic alkanes and polycyclic. Natural role and applications of alkanes.

Alkenes. Introduction .. Structure. Sp2 hybridization. Nomenclature. Physical Properties. Stability (heat of hydrogenation, heat of combustion). Nomenclature system (E) - (Z) for alkenes. Cicloalcheni.Funzione biological.

Alkynes. Introduction. Structure. Sp hybridization. Nomenclature. Physical Properties.

Functional groups and classes of organic compounds. Alkyl halides. Alcohols. Ethers. Amines. Aldehydes and ketones. Carboxylic acids. Esters and amides. Introduction. Structure. Nomenclature. Physical Properties.

Stereochemistry. Introduction. Chirality of carbon. Enantiomers and chiral molecules. Graphical representation. Nomenclature (R) (S). Optical activity (specific optical rotation, definition of racemate, optical purity). Diastereoisomers (meso compounds). Chiral molecules without chiral carbons.

Aromatic compounds. Introduction. Benzene. Structure and stability. Huckel rule. Other aromatic compounds. Nomenclature of benzene derivatives. Induction phenomena and resonance. Heterocyclic aromatic compounds. The aromatic compounds in biochemistry.

Carbohydrates. Classification. Monosaccharides. Mutarotation and formation of glucosides. Configuration D or L. Disaccharides. Polysaccharides.

Protein. Structure of the amino acids. Nomenclature. Peptide bond. Oligopeptides.

Nucleic acids. Purine and pyrimidine nucleic bases. Nucleosides. Nucleotides. Oligonucleotides.

Lipids.

Form B. THE REACTIVITY '

Reactions of alkanes and cycloalkanes. Chlorination of methane. Free radicals. Stability and structure. Thermodynamics and kinetics. Halogenation of higher alkanes.

Ionic reactions of substitution and elimination. Formation of carbocations. Stability and structure. Nucleophilic substitution reactions. SN2 reaction. SN1 reaction. Mechanisms and trends stereochimici.Effetti solvent and leaving group. Elimination reactions. E1 reaction. E2 reaction. Competition between substitution and elimination. Substitution reactions and elimination of biological interest.

Reactions of the C = C double bond. Addition reaction. Addition of hydrogen halides. Markovnikov rule.

- Chimica Organica Essenziale, Bruno Botta, Editore EdiTes (most recent edition).

- Chimica Organica, Robert Thornton Morrison, Robert Nielson Boyd, Casa Editrice Ambrosiana. Distribuzione Zanichelli (edizione più recente).

GENETICS
(9 cfu)

The Mendel's analysis
Genetic variability
The law of segregation
The law of independent assortment
Genes and alleles: the concept of polymorphism
Extensions of mendelian inheritance
Variations of dominance relationships
Multiple alleles
Pleiotropy
Multifactorial inheritance
Inheritance of quantitative traits
The Chromosome theory
Mitosis and meiosis
Sex linked inheritance
Meiosis and Mendel's laws
Linkage and recombination
Gene linkage
Crossing over
Χ2 statistical test
Genetic maps
Three point test
Mitotic recombination and genetic mosaicism
The DNA is the molecule of the heredity
The experiments that designated DNA as the genetic material
The Watson and Crick model
DNA replication
DNA recombination
The gene at work
The mutations
Genetic dissection through mutations
The one gene-one enzyme hypothesis
Complementation test
The gene fine structure
The Benzer's experiments
The gene expression
The genetic code
Transcription
Translation
The eukaryotic chromosome
The structure of chromatin
The radial loop model
Centromeres
Telomeres
Nucleolus organizing regions (NORs)
Chromosome rearrangements
Structural changes
Deletions
Duplications
Inversions
translocations
Mobile elements
Changes in chromosome number
Polyploidy
Aneuploidy
Genetic analysis in bacteria
Transformation
Conjugation
Transduction
Recombination mapping
Gene Regulation in prokaryotes
Regulation of Lac genes
The operon theory
Regulation of Tryptophan genes
Attenuation
Gene regulation in eukaryotes
Transcriptional regulation
Posttranscriptional regulation
The role of chromatin structure
Epigenetic inheritance
Euchromatin and heterochromatin
Position effect variegation
X chromosome inactivation in mammals
Recombinant DNA techniques and genomics
DNA manipulation
Nucleic acid hybridization
PCR
Gene cloning
DNA sequencing
The sequencing of the genomes
SNPs
Microsatellites
Genetic analysis of populations
How to calculate the frequencies of alleles
How to calculate the frequencies of genotypes
The Hardy-Weinberg law
Changes in allele frequencies
How the populations evolve

Textbooks:
Hartwell LH et al.: “Genetics - from genes to genomes”, 3rd edition, McGraw-Hill.

This course focuses on studying the technologies needed to transform and manipulate biological data. In particular it is focused on tools that allow the analysis of large sequencing data sets with the aim of obtaining reproducible and robust biological results. For this reason, 2 credits of the course are dedicated to the introduction of the linux environment and the tools included for the manipulation of data. The second half of the course (the remaining 2 credits) is dedicated to the fundamentals of programming illustrated using the python language and applications to sequence analysis.

ations to sequence analysis.

Linux:
- Setting up and management of a bioinformatics project in a linux environment
- Project directories and directory structures
- Why Linux in Bioinformatics? Modularity and
Linux philosophy
- The environment variables
- Working with flows and redirection
- Managing and interacting with processes
- Working with remote machines
- Recovery of bioinformatics data
- Data compression and use of compressed data
- When using unix pipelines
- Inspecting and manipulating data with linux tools
- An introduction to genomic ranges
- Working with sequence data
- Basic Bash scripts


Python:
- Python installation
- Arithmetic operators
- Types of data (numerical, booleans, sets, words, sequence)
- Variables, expressions, statements
- Control instructions (if, while, for, break, continue)
- Functions
- The biopython libraries

Educational material provided by the teacher.

First part of the program
General aspects of Biochemistry
Weak interactions in aqueous systems. Chemical-physical properties of water. Ionization of water, weak acids and basics. Buffers.

Composition and structure of proteins
Amino acids e their general properties. Peptide bond. Levels of organization of proteins: primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures. Functional aspects of proteins. Myoglobin and haemoglobin.

Enzymes
Fundamental concepts of enzymatic activity. Enzyme nomenclature, specificity, coenzymes and cofactors. Activation energy end role of enzymes. Overview of enzymatic kinetics.

Lipids, biological membranes and membrane proteins
Fatty acids. Triacylglycerols. Glycerophospholipids. Lipidic and proteic components of biological membranes. Composition and architecture of biological membranes. Membrane proteins.

Carbohydrates
Structure and function of carbohydrates. Oligosaccharides. Polysaccharides.

Second part of the program
Introduction to Metabolism
Catabolism and Anabolism. Experimental approach to the study of Metabolism. Thermodynamics of phosphorus-containing compounds: ATP, and compounds with high energy. Electron transporters. Oxide-reduction reactions.

Carbohydrate Metabolism
Glycolysis. Lactic fermentation. Reduction equivalent transport from cytoplasm to mitochondria. Krebs cycle. Pentose Shunt. Glycogen metabolism. Carbohydrates metabolism regulation.

Bioenergetics
Compound with high energy. Electron transport. Oxidative phosphorylation. Oxidative metabolism control.

Lipid Metabolism
Digestion, absorption and lipid transport. Fatty acids oxidation. Ketone bodies. Fatty acids biosynthesis. Regulation of fatty acids metabolism.

Protein Metabolism
Fate of amino acid carbon skeleton. Deamination of amino acids: transamination and oxidative deamination in catabolic process. Reductive amination and transamination in anabolic process. Mode of action of glutamine synthetase and glutaminase. Urea cycle. Crosstalk between Krebs and urea cycles and gluconeogenesis. Gluconeogenetic and ketogenetic amino acids.

Nelson DL, Cox MM. Introduzione alla Biochimica di Lenhninger. 5a Edizione (2015) Zanichelli, Bologna.
Voet D, Voet JG, Pratt CW. Fondamenti di Biochimica 3a Edizione (2013) Zanichelli, Bologna.
Nelson DL, Cox MM. I principi di Biochimica di Lenhninger. 6a Edizione (2014) Zanichelli, Bologna.
Berg JM, Tymoczko JL, Stryer L. Biochimica 7a Edizione (2012) Zanichelli, Bologna.

The chordates and phylogenetic relationships of Vertebrates and their characteristics. Sex features and reproduction. Migration of germ cells and gametogenesis. fertilization: processes of sperm maturation and egg, the role of MPF , a meeting of the gametes, fast and slow block of polyspermy, MPF and calcium role in the post-fertilization processes, modification of the cytoplasm. The segmentation events that direct cell division and the formation of the blastocoel, again: MPF role. Gastrulation, cell movements and the formation of sheets: entoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm. The molecules that lead the gastrulation (morphogenetic factors and cadherins). The nerulation: formation of the neural tube, neural crest cells and the role of the notochord. extra-embryonal membranes and coelomic pouches formation.Organogenesi formation and organization of the integument, scales and teeth. Organogenesis and organization of skeletal bone (skull, vertebres and apparatus appendiceal) and muscles (notes). Organogenesis and general organization of the central and peripheral nervous system. The endocrine system: hipothalamus-pituitary glands, pineal gland, thyroid / parathyroid, adrenal gland, gonads, intestine. Organogenesis and organization of the respiratory, circulatory and heart. Organogenesis and organization of the urogenital system.
Laboratory (1 CFU- 8 hrs) IT IS NECESSARY TO FOLLOW THE LABORATORY to gain the credit. Practical CFU program (AY 2021/22 online mode which at the end of the achievement issues a confirmation badge that must be kept by the student). If possible, a few hours will be accompanied in the presence, depending on the pandemic situation (the teacher will organize them during the lesson hours and will inform you on the moodle forum).
morphogenesis: watching movies, and microscopic preparations related to the development (echinoderms, fish, amphibians, birds, mammals). Practical vision (prepared macroscopic and microscopic): organization of the integument of vertebrates. Skull and skeleton of vertebrates. Organization of the respiratory system (lungs and gills) in Vertebrates. Organization of the circulatory system and the heart in vertebrates. Organization of the urogenital and endocrine systems in vertebrates. Digestive System.

For Comparative Anatomy:
- Stingo et al., Anatomia Comparata, ed. ermes

further lectures
Liem et al. Anatomia Comparata, Edises

For Morphogenesis
Gilbert, Biologia dello Sviluppo ed. Zanichelli (in parte).
For the practical laboratory:
Atlante di Anatomia microscopica dei Vertebrati,Unicopoli ed.;
Minelli-Del Grande, Atlante di Anatomia dei Vertebrati, Piccin ed.

Ulteriori materiali didattici di studio ed approfondimento sono disponibili su classroom/google drive per gli studenti universitari della Tuscia/
536/5000
For COMPARATIVE ANATOMY:
- Stingo et al., Comparative Anatomy, ed. ermes
to consult
Liem et al. Comparative Anatomy, Edises

For MORPHOGENESIS
Gilbert, Developmental Biology ed. Zanichelli (in part).
Consult: Giudice et al. Developmental biology, Piccin
Atlas of Microscopic Anatomy of Vertebrates, Unicopoli ed .;
Minelli-Del Grande, Atlas of Vertebrate Anatomy, Piccin ed.

Additional didactic study and in-depth materials are available on classroom / google drive for Tuscia university students /

NUCLEIC ACIDS. The DNA structure. The double helix and Watson-Crick base pairs (DNA B). Alternative DNA secondary structures (DNA A, DNA Z). DNA topology (supercoiling, topoisomerases). DNA denaturation and renaturation. The DNA of organelles (mitochondria and chloroplasts). The RNA structure. Spatial arrangements of RNA.
GENOME EVOLUTION AND ORGANIZATION. The gene: definition and structure in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Unique and repetitive sequences of DNA, coding and noncoding regions. The nucleosome and chromatin organization. Chemical modifications of histone N-terminal tails and their functional significance. DNA methylation.
DNA REPLICATION. Structure and function of DNA polymerase. Fidelity and processivity of DNA polymerase. Specialized DNA polymerases. DNA helicase. The mechanism of DNA replication: initiation phase, strand synthesis, replication fork, termination, telomere and telomerase. Regulation of DNA replication in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
TRANSCRIPTION IN PROKARYOTES. RNA polymerase. Bacterial promoter recognition. RNA biosynthesis and maturation: initiation, elongation and termination steps.
TRANSCRIPTION IN EUKARYOTES. Eukaryotic promoters. RNA polymerase I, II and III. Key differences in transcription in eukaryotes vs. prokaryotes.
PRINCIPLES OF TRANSCRIPTIONAL REGULATION. Repressors and activators. DNA-binding domains in transcriptional regulators. Examples of gene expression regulation in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
RNA MATURATION. tRNA and rRNA maturation processes. Modifications of eukaryotic mRNA: capping, polyadenylation, editing. The splicing mechanism: chemistry of the reaction, spliceosome assembly, alternative splicing.
TRANSLATION OF GENETIC INFORMATION. The mechanism of protein synthesis in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Examples of translation regulation. Non sense-mediated and non stop decay (NMD, NSD).
PROTEIN POST-TRANSLATIONAL MODIFICATIONS. Lipidation, glycosylation, phosphorylation, acetylation, methylation, oxidation, ubiquitination and sumoylation of proteins.
MOBILE DNA. Types of transposable elements and their mechanism of action.
INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING. Steroid hormones. Single- and multipass transmembrane receptors. G-proteins, AMPc, PKA, inositol triphosphate, DAG and PKC. Calcium signaling.

BIOLOGIA MOLECOLARE di F. Amaldi, P. Benedetti, G. Pesole, P. Plevani (2018-terza ed. Casa Editrice Ambrosiana); BIOLOGIA MOLECOLARE: principi e tecniche di M.M. Cox, J.A. Doudna, M. O'Donnel (2013-Zanichelli). BIOLOGIA MOLECOLARE DELLA CELLULA di B. Alberts, A. Johnson, J. Lewis, D. Morgan, M. Raff, K. Roberts, P. Walter (2016-sesta ed. Zanichelli).

Theory (48 hours, 6 cfu)

1) History of microbiology: discovery of the microbial world; the “Abiogeny” dispute, microorganisms and their environment, impact of microorganisms on man: pathogenic, harmful and useful microorganisms.
2) Cytology: prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells: general concepts, structure and ultra-structure of bacterial cells, structure and function of cytoplasmic membrane, transports through the cytoplasmic membrane, cell wall, structure and function, the cell wall of Gram + and Gram – bacteria, Archaeal and eukaryotic cell walls, capsules and other envelopes, motility, flagella and chemotaxis, endospores structure and function, mentions of eukaryotic spores.
3) Cell physiology: reminders of chemistry and cell biochemistry (redox reactions, hydrogen and electron transport, high energy compounds), biological energy production, glycolysis and alternative pathways; NAD re-oxidation: fermentations (alcoholic and lactic); aerobic respiration (TCA, electron transport phosphorylation, energy balance in respiration), mentions of anaerobic respiration and biosynthesis.
4) Microbial growth: growth of a single cell and of a microbial population, diauxic growth, effect of environmental parameters on growth (pH, temperature, etc.), methods for the control of microbial growth.
5) Virology: “anatomy” and structure of viral particles; viral counts; general concepts of viral reproduction, principles of viral genetics, RNA/DNA phages, temperate and lytic bacterial viruses; principal animal and plant viruses (mentions).
6) Microbial ecology and mention of environmental biotechnology: isolation and identification of microorganisms (recalls), interactions among microbial population and between microorganisms and other organisms; microbial ecosystems; methods for the study of microbial ecology and diversity; biogeochemical cycles (Carbon, Nitrogen, Iron, Sulphur, etc.), role of microorganisms in environmental decontamination, aerobic/anaerobic catabolism of environmental pollutants, treatment of water and wastewater.
7) Microbial Biotechnology: microorganism of industrial interest, screening for industrial metabolites/enzymes. Bioreactors, structure and design, scale-up, primary and secondary metabolites; production of antibiotics, enzymes, etc. (mentions). Enzyme and cell immobilization (mentions)
8) Pathogenic, harmful and useful microorganisms mentions of medical microbiology. Pathogenic microorganisms in food and waters (mentions); microbiological analysis of water.

Brock, Biologia dei Microrganismi di M.T. Madigan e J.M. Martinko, D.A. Stahl, D.P. Clark, Pearson, 2012. Vol. 1 e 2 (or any other more recent edition)
Brock, Biologia dei Microrganismi di M.T. Madigan e J.M. Martinko, Casa Editrice Ambrosiana. Vol. 1 e 2A
Biologia dei microrgamismi di G. Dehò e E. Galli, Casa Editrice Ambrosiana, 2018.

The lectures slides (PDF) are available on line. During the course, some scientific publications will be distributed and discussed.

Other recent textbooks of General Microbiology could be used after a preliminary check with the teacher.

Theory (16 hours, 2 cfu)

1) The laboratory of microbiology: the microscope, mentions of optical physics, preparation of microscope slides, electron microscopy and other microscopy techniques. The pure culture, microbial nutrition and preparation of culture media. Theory and practice of sterilization.
2) Principles of molecular and bacterial genetics (reminders): DNA structure, restriction enzymes, DNA replication, genetic elements, gene rearrangement, transposons, transcription, structure and function of mRNA and tRNA, translation and protein synthesis, mechanisms of gene expression control, genetic code mutations and mutagens; bacterial recombination (in details), transformation, transduction, plasmids and conjugation.
3) Microbial taxonomy, classification and phylogeny


Laboratory (8 hours, 1 cfu)

1) Pure cultures: methods to obtain pure cultures, enrichment cultures.
2) Microscopy: observation of fresh and stained slides, simple and differential staining
3) Measure of the microbial growth: viable and total counts, dry weight and turbidimetry

Brock, Biologia dei Microrganismi di M.T. Madigan e J.M. Martinko, D.A. Stahl, D.P. Clark, Pearson, 2012. Volumi 1 e 2
Brock, Biologia dei Microrganismi di M.T. Madigan e J.M. Martinko, Casa Editrice Ambrosiana. Volumi 1 e 2A
Biologia dei microrgamismi di G. Dehò e E. Galli, Casa Editrice Ambrosiana, 2018.

The lectures slides (PDF) are available on line. During the course, some scientific publications will be distributed and discussed.

Other recent textbooks of General Microbiology could be used after a preliminary check with the teacher.

Traditional Lessons (up front) (40 hours)

Buffer systems. Ionization of amino acids and proteins as a function of pH. The principles of biochemical research. Error theory. Accuracy and precision. (2 hours)
Centrifugation. Basic principles of sedimentation. Centrifuges and their use. Rotors. Separation methods in the preparative centrifugation. Differential centrifugation. Density gradient centrifugation. Analytical ultracentrifugation. (4 hours)
Spectrophotometry: laws and applications. Lambert-Beer law. Absorption spectrum of nuclei acids and proteins. Spectrophotometric determination of protein concentration: Biuret, Lowry and Bradford methods. Enzyme dosing. Studies on accessibility of ionizable residues in native proteins. Fluorescence and phosphorescence. (7 hours)
Strategies for isolation and purification of proteins. Cellular extraction methods. Dialysis and ultrafiltration. Fractional precipitation with salts, with organic solvents, to the isoelectric point, to heat. (3 hours)
Chromatographic methods: adsorption and partition chromatography, ion exchange, molecular exclusion, affinity, hydrophobic interaction, HPLC, gas chromatography. Efficiency of chromatographic procedures and selection of a convenient method. (6 hours)
Electrophoresis: theory and laws. Classification of electrophoretic methods. Free phase and zonal electrophoresis. Equipment for zonal electrophoresis gel. Gel electrophoresis under native and denaturing conditions (SDS-PAGE). Application of SDS-PAGE. Western blotting. Isoelectrofocusing: principles, equipment and methods. Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis. Capillary electrophoresis. (5 hours)
Studies on the structure of proteins. Determination of amino acid composition, free cysteines, amino acid sequence and disulphide bridges. (4 hours)
Mass spectrometry: principles and application in modern proteomic analysis. (3 hours)
Structural characterization of nucleic acids. PCR. DNA sequencing: automated Sanger method. Southern and Northern blotting. (6 hours)

Laboratory activities (8 hours)

Determination of the protein concentration of an unknown sample using the Bradford method. Construction of the calibration line both manually on millimeter paper and using the least squares method and comparison of the obtained results. Spectrophotometer display of absorption spectrum of a protein with prosthetic groups and one without and discussion of results (4 hours).
Preparation of a polyacrylamide gel in the presence of SDS (SDS-PAGE) and electrophoretic run with pre-stained molecular weight markers, in order to follow the protein mobility during the electrophoretic process. Illustration of devices for the preparation of agarose gel for nucleic acids and western blotting (4 hours).

Wilson K., Walker J. Principles and techniques of practical biochemistry. 8th ed., 2018, Cambridge University Press.
Handouts are provided by the teacher for practical laboratory activities.

- Distinction between foods and nutrients;
- Carbohydrates: generalities and classification; digestion, absorption and metabolic fate;
- Lipids: generalities and classification; digestion and absorption and fate metabolic;
- Proteins: generalities and classification; digestion, absorption and metabolic fate;
- Water: the water requirement;
- The minerals;
- Vitamins: generalities and classification.
- Epidemiology and prevention of major diseases linked to the consumption of food;
- Food safety

Lecture notes.
Siliprandi & Tettamanti; Biochimica Medica; Piccin Editori
A. Mariani – Costantini; C. Cannella; G Tomassi/ Alimentazione e Nutrizione Umana. Il Pensiero Scientifico Editore Roma, 2006.
Nino Carlo Battistini, Patrizia Pedrazzi Monica Prampolini, Curare con il cibo: Gli alimenti funzionali nella dietetica e nella dietoterapia.
Livelli di Assunzione Raccomandati di Energia e Nutrienti, Società Italiana di Nutrizione Umana.

1) Basic concepts. Homeostasis; negative and positive feedback: examples; cell metabolism and enzymatic actions.
2) Cell membranes and transport. Active and passive transport, epithelial transport; factors affecting transport; osmosis; sodium-calcium pump; membrane potential; equilibrium potential; electric, chemical, and electrochemical gradient; Nernst equation.
3) Intercellular communication. Chemical messengers: hormones, neurotransmitters, and mechanisms of signal transduction.
4) Endocrine system, glands and hormones. Endocrine organs; mechanisms of hormonal actions.
5) Nervous system physiology. Basis of neuroanatomy; the central nervous system and its organization in vertebrates. the neuron; action potential: temporal dynamic and ionic genesis; propagation of the action potential; myelin sheath and saltatory conduction. Receptors. Examples of neuropathologies and mechanisms of actions of drugs. Neurotransmission: chemical synapses and neurotransmitters. Reflexes: examples. Language; sleep; emotions; learning and memory; synaptic plasticity and molecular basis: long-term potentiation. Basics of sensoria physiology: stimuli, receptors, signal transduction and responses; nociception; vision; hearing, taste, olfaction: examples. Autonomic nervous system and its organization in vertebrates; effects on the different systems. Somatic nervous system, neuroanatomy and neuromuscular junction; neurotoxic subtances.
6) Muscular physiology. Basis of anatomy, histology and cytology of the skeletal muscle tissue. Contraction: molecular mechanisms. Sliding filament model and cross bridge cycle. Coupling of excitation-contraction coupling. Summation and tetanus. Types of muscular fibers.
7) Cardiovascular system. General anatomy, histology and morphology. The heart of mammals Cardiac cycle. ECG. Pacemaker cells and their action potential, electric activity and conduction. Ionic basis of contraction. Cardiac output. Blood vessels, hematic flow, blood pressure. Baroceptors. Regulation by the autonomic nervous system.
8) Physiology of respiration, transport and gas exchange. Anatomy of the respiratory trait. Mechanics of respiration; lung volume and capacity. Gas exchange in the lungs; blood transport of gas; hemoglobin: dissociation curve and factors of variability. Nervous control of respiration Chemoceptors.
9) Kidney physiology. Functional anatomy. The function of the kidneys. The nephrone. Filtration. Pressure gradients, regulation of the velocity of glomerular filtration; tubular reabsorption and secretion. Mechanism of the countercurrent multiplier. Regulation of the composition of the extracellular fluids. ADH and aldosterone. The renine-angiotensin-aldosterone system. Electrolyte regulation. Control of acid-base balance. Renal compensation.
10 Nutrition, digestion and absorption. Digestive system: generality. Digestion and absorption of nutrients and water. Gastrointestinal secretion and its regulation.
11) Regulation of energetic metabolism and growth. General concepts of energy balance. Pancreatic hormones: insulin and glucagon; growth hormone; thyroid hormones; glucocorticoids. Stress response. Oxidative stress. Basis of thermoregulation physiology.
12) Physiology of the reproductive system. Male system: spermatogenesis; androgens. Female system: menstrual cycle and ovulation; hormonal control; fecundation; gestation; parturition; lactation. Progesterone, oxytocine, and prolactin.

Stanfield Cindy L. Principles of Human Physiology, Pearson

Biogeography: principles and methods; spatial and temporal scales of biogeography; biogeography of the Italian peninsula; island biogeography

M. L. Cain, W. D. Bowman, S. D. Hacker, “Ecologia”. Piccin Editore.

General Ecology - The historical development of ecology. Ecology of the interactions between organisms and the physical environment: Conditions; Spatial and temporal variations; Adaptations in response to variations in environmental conditions; Limiting factors; Tolerance ranges; Environmental optima; Biological rhythms - climatic factors; Classification of climates; Phytogeographic zonation; Hints of paleoclimatology; Biomes.
Evolutionary Ecology - Genetic analysis of populations; Hardy-Weinberg's law; Genetic variability; Evolutionary forces (mutation, selection, gene flow, genetic drift); inbreeding; Wahlund effect; Balanced polymorphisms; Linkage disequilibrium; supergenes; Genetic divergence; Species concept; Reproductive isolation mechanisms; Speciation mechanisms; Hybrid zones and reinforcement; Sibling species; Biodiversity at the genetic level.
Population ecology - Demography and dynamics: population structure and growth; Demographic parameters; Demographic tables; Intrinsic growth rate - numerical regulation of populations; Density dependent and independent factors; Exponential growth; environmental carrying capacity - logistic growth curve. Interspecific interactions: symbiosis; commensalism; inquilinism; antibiosis; parasitism; adaptations to parasitic life; coevolution; predation - adaptations to predation; cryptism; mimicry; intraspecific competition; interspecific competition; ecological niche; Principle of competitive exclusion; character displacement; r and K selection.
Community and Ecosystem Ecology – What is community and its diversity, diversity indices, natural successions. Principles of Biogeography and islands biogeography. Ecosystems: structure, primary and secondary productivity, flux of energy through the ecosystem, trophic webs.

M. L. Cain, W. D. Bowman, S. D. Hacker, “Ecologia”. Piccin Editore.