General characteristics of the plant
Cell wall: composition, structure and functions. Plasmodesmata: structure and function.
Vacuole: structure and functions.

Transport of water and solutes
Water and plant: water importance for the plant. Water characteristics. Water movement from the ground to the atmosphere: diffusion, mass flow and osmosis. Electrochemical potential of water and water potential. Components of water potential. Use of water potential and experimental methods for measuring water potential (psychrometer and pressure chamber). The movement of water in the plant: anatomy of the xylem; radical absorption; root pressure; transpiration; relative humidity; stomata and stomatal regulation. Theory of tension-cohesion. Absorption of solutes: plasma membrane. Active and passive transport. Potential of Nerst (outline). Channels: carriers and pumps; K+ channel and sucrose-proton carrier.

Photosynthesis and phloem transport
Photosynthesis: light-dependent reactions and carbon reactions. Biosynthesis of starch and sucrose. Photorespiration. Photoinhibition. Site of action of diuron and paraquat herbicides.
CO2 concentration mechanisms: C4 plants and CAM plants. Transpiration ratio. The transport of photosynthates: phloem anatomy; characteristics of phloem transport; definition of source and sink organs. Phloem loading and unloading. Pressure flow hypothesis. Assimilate allocation and distribution.

Growth, development and defence
Importance of light as an environmental signal. Plant responses regulated by blue light and red light. Action spectrum and absorption spectrum. Skotomorphogenesis and photomorphogenesis. Photoreceptors. Phytochrome characteristics: pr and pfr forms of phytochromes; phytochrome function and its role in the shadow perception in heliophilous plants; importance of the phytochrome in seed germination; photoperiodism; long- and short-day plants. Importance of night duration in the photoperiodic response; demonstration of the phytochrome involvement in the photoperiodic response. Vernalization. Signal perception in leaves.
Plant hormones: what is and how a plant hormone acts. Physiological aspects of hormonal activities: multiple responses induced by different hormones. Auxins: auxin polar transport; cell distension and the acid growth hypothesis; phototropism. Gibberellins: induction of alpha-amylase in seed germination; growth of the stem (cell distension) and effect on the cell wall. Cytokinins: stimulation of cell division. Abscisic acid: regulation of stomata the closure. Ethylene: regulation of fruit ripening. Brassinosteroids (brief). The defence response of plants: secondary metabolites; constitutive and induced defence responses, including the acquired systemic response (outline).

Plant biotechnology
Plant biotechnology: definition. Essential steps for the production of transgenic plants. Importance of knowledge of physiological processes for the manipulation of the traits of interest: Case study: fruit softening process in tomato. GM plant cultivation.

Recommended textbooks

Taiz L. and Zeiger E. Element di Fisiologia vegetale (2013), Piccin
Rascio et al. Element di Fisiologia vegetale (2012), EdiSES
Pupillo P., Cervone F., Cresti M, Rascio N., 2003. Biologia vegetale. Zanichelli
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