The rise of Life on Earth. Plant evolution. Miller experience. Prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Aerobiosis and anaerobiosis. Autotrophy and heterotrophy. Unicellular and multicellular organisms. Innovation through the affirmation of cellular functions.
Structure and functions of the plant cell and its organelles: Protoplast, Cytoplasm, Cytosol, Cytoskeleton; Golgi, Transition and maturation vesicles. Endoplasmic model (RE). The endomembrane system.
Plastids: types of plastids (chloroplasts, chromoplasts, leukoplasts, amyloplasts, etioplasts), structure and relative functions. Origin from proplastids. Chloroplasts: structure (thylacoids, grain, stroma) in relation to the main reactions involved in chlorophyll photosynthesis. Photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll and carotenoids).
Mitochondria: structure (relationship and matrix) in relation to the main reactions involved in cellular respiration.
Vacuole. Role of vacuole in cellular metabolism, in water economics and in cellular relaxation processes. Water relations: the water potential and the factors that determine it. Movement of water between cells.
The plasmalemma. Structure of cell membranes. Differential permeability. Osmosis and osmotic pressure. Transport of solutes through the membrane.
The cell wall, its constituents and structure. Assembly of the primary wall. Movement of water and solutes in relation to the wall. The wall and the growth by distension of the cell. The secondary wall. Wall modifications (suberification, cutinization, lignification, mineralization). Plasmodesmata.

The cell nucleus (synthesis). The genetic code, ribosomes and protein synthesis. Importance of genetic information and proteins in relation to cellular metabolism.
Modes of the mitotic division of the nucleus. Cytokinesis. Fragmoplast and wall formation from cell division.
The meiotic division of the nucleus. Consequences of meiosis for the genetic variability of individuals.

Higher plant anatomy. Growth by division, relaxation and differentiation. Dedifferentiation and cellular totipotency. Tissues: classification and cell types of the various tissues. Meristematic and mature tissues. Main types of tissues and their characteristics.
Structure and functions of the root in Angiosperms and Gymnosperms. The root system. Apex, structure and function of radical meristems. Quiescent center, positive geotropism, statoliths. Primary structure (actinostele). Formation of the secondary structure. Origin of the lateral roots.
Shoot morphology and anatomy in Angiosperms and Gimnosperms. The bud: vegetative and floral buds; terminal and lateral buds; dormant buds. Knots and internodes. The meristems in the bud. Origin of the vascular bundles. Eustele and atactostele. Origin structure and functioning of the cribro-vascular cambium. Secondary structure of the stem. Annual rings. Structure of homoxylous and heteroxylous wood. Ring porous and diffuse porous wood. Heartwood and sapwood. Origin of the structure and functions of the cork cambium. Periderm and Lenticels.
Morphology and anatomy of the leaf of Angiosperms and Gymnosperms. The petiole and the leaf blade. Simple and compound leaves. Homogeneous and heterogeneous mesophyll leaves. Double-sided, equifacial and single-sided leaves; plagiotropic, orthotropic and needle-like leaves. The stomata and the factors that determine the opening and closing mechanism. The hydatodes. Transpiration and chlorophyll photosynthesis in relation to the structure of the leaf. The rise of water in the xylem: the cohesion-tension theory. Phloem loading and photosyntate transport .
Propagation and reproduction systems in plants. Alternation between generations (gametophyte, sporophyte) and reproductive cells (spores and gametes).
Main characteristics and reproduction cycle of non-vascular embryophytes (moss and liver).
Main characteristics and reproduction cycle of some phyla of vascular embryophytes:
phylum Pterophyta (ferns)
phylum Conipherophyta (conifers)
phylum Antophyta (angiosperms)
Ovule and seed. Seed structure in Gymnosperms and Angiosperms. Hypogeal and epigeal germination. Environmental factors favoring seed germination.
Flower structure in plants.
The fruit. From ovary to pericarp. Dried and fleshy fruits, dehiscent and indehiscent. Simple fruits, aggregates, compounds, false fruits. Fruit dispersion mode (anemocora, zoocora, hydrocora, etc.).
Summary of evolutionary theory. Natural and artificial selection, selective pressure, adaptation, fitness, evolution. Genotype and phenotype. Divergent and convergent evolution; coevolution. The concept of species, subspecies, ecotype; the cultivar. Taxa of infraspecific and higher rank. Taxonomy and systematics; the Linnaeus binomial, the systematic categories, notes on the formation of phylogenetic trees.
The ecology. The interactions between plants and their environment. Ecological abiotic factors in relation to plant metabolism: light, temperature, water, essential nutrients.
Morphological adaptations to different environmental contexts: hygromorphism and xeromorphism.

Suggested Textbooks:
Pasqua et al. Botanica generale e diversità vegetale Ed. Piccin.
Raven, Evert, Eichorn. BIOLOGIA DELLE PIANTE VI edizione (No precedenti!) Zanichelli.
Evert, Eichhorn. Biologia delle piante di Raven. Zanichelli.
Mauseth. Botanica. Fondamenti di biologia delle piante. Idelson-Gnocchi